The northeast winds pick up as the sun hides behind ink-dark clouds enveloping the sky. The roar of the 170-mph wind becomes deafening. Lightning flashes. This was Cyclone Gita: Over the course of two weeks, Gita wreaked havoc across the Southern Pacific, causing millions of dollars in damage in Samoa alone.
No impact of the climate crisis is more violent and visible than the severe weather events battering Pacific Island nations. In 2016, Cyclone Winston struck Fiji with unprecedented ferocity, earning the title of the most powerful tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Southern Hemisphere. The Category 5 storm unleashed wind gusts in excess of 180 mph and generated waves up to 12 metres high. Winston claimed more than 40 lives and destroyed homes, vital infrastructure, and valuable crops.
The aftermath of this disaster affected more than 340,000 people, approximately 40% of the archipelago’s total population. Samoa, an island country just over 700 miles to Fiji’s northeast, is still reeling from the ruinous effects of Cyclone Evan, which struck in 2012. In its wake, 600 homes were destroyed and 7,500 people were displaced. The total price tag of the damage added up to approximately $313 million, or 30% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) in 2011.
Cyclones are just one consequence of the climate crisis facing communities in Fiji and Samoa. Rising sea levels are causing food shortages and mass displacement, ravaging villages whose culture centers on the interconnectedness of people and nature.
Communities on the island of Vanua Levu Island, Fiji, reflect on life before and after experiencing the effects of climate change in interviews with members of the Pacific Ocean and Climate Crisis Assessment (POCCA). Sera Diiva, an elderly woman living in the village of Karoko, describes the impact of rising sea levels on her home and recalls happier days. “Today, you can see the difference. Whenever there’s a high tide, we are swimming here.” Due to rising sea levels, Sera and her family no longer have access to the fruit and vegetable garden that once occupied the neighborhood. The influx of seawater has degraded gardens and farmland, depriving people of traditional foods such as breadfruit. Adi Sivo Yabakitolu from the village of Vunidogoloa laments: “After saltwater intrusion, most of what our forefathers planted to survive struggles to grow. Anything that [we] plant mostly dies because of salt water.”
Efforts to combat rising sea levels have been largely ineffective. After numerous floods, all of the sea walls that communities built to protect their homes from flooding were completely submerged, so damaged that residents were unable to build new ones. Perhaps most devastating of all is the scale of what’s been lost due to sea level rise and the landslides that come with it. “One of the biggest changes that we’ve seen [in] our villages is that most of our land areas no longer exist,” says Kelepi Delaimataitoga from Nawaikama Village.
Kasiano Medralawa and Mikaele Niabe, residents of Karoko Village, estimate that they have already lost half an acre of land to the sea. “We have water streaming down and filling up our village. Most of the places are now filled up with sediments. The level of the sea is higher [...] and during high tide the water surrounds our village like an island,” says Mikaele, his face etched with overwhelming concern.
Kasiano and Mikaele agree that most of the problems their community has faced in the past have been overcome through collaboration, with the community meeting regularly to find solutions. With the intensity of climate change-induced impacts that Vanua Levu Island has faced in recent years, this spirit of camaraderie has taken a turn, now replaced by a more individualized approach. Due to natural disasters, flooding, and high temperatures, community meetings have become infrequent, no longer providing a regular forum for togetherness during regional crises.
In the Pacific, there is an ancient concept called ‘Fa’atoaga’, known in Samoan as the connection between people, the ocean, and the sky that has been alive for generations. Although a different term is used in Fiji, the meaning is the same, and this principle of harmony between people and nature guides both Fijian and Samoan ways of life, strengthening bonds within the community. Far from being a physical feature of their environment, the ocean is a deeply rooted aspect of Fijian and Samoan identity, spirituality, and survival. For many coastal communities, fishing is the primary means of subsistence.
From a cultural perspective, the ocean is the spiritual bridge linking the living and the spirits of the ancestors. Fijian folklore personifies this marine link through stories of deities and spirits believed to dwell in the ocean, like Dakuwaqa, a shapeshifting shark god who protects fishermen at sea. Safeguarding the ocean and its resources goes beyond environmental conservation. It's about preserving culture, heritage, and multigenerational ways of life.
In both Fiji and Samoa, the relationship between humans and nature has been carefully nurtured through traditions and sustainable management approaches alike, with each generation gaining a deeper and more informed understanding and respect for their environment. This holistic perspective allows communities to consider the interdependencies between the Earth's social and natural systems to guide their crisis response strategies accordingly, drawing primarily on the wisdom of inherited Indigenous knowledge systems.
Indigenous knowledge systems have existed far longer than formalized science. These techniques, which include customary practices such as observing plant and animal behaviour to indicate changes in weather and seasons, have woven their way through generations, outlasted technological advances, and remained critical to crisis response within local communities. Today, they enlighten many aspects of climate change mitigation: local knowledge and adaptation — grounded in millennia- old values of environmental stewardship — are driving community participation in decision-making and innovative disaster response across Fiji and Samoa.
Methods that promote ecosystem health and biodiversity conservation include the more scientifically conventional, from the establishment of marine protected areas, to rotational farming and forest management, as well as cultural practices and rituals such as the 'kava' ceremony in both Fiji and Samoa. During these celebrations, the kava beverage is shared among participants as a symbol of unity, respect, and social cohesion within the community.
But climate change is rendering some of these ceremonies impossible. On Moala Island, Fiji, dawa fruit is ceremonially presented to the chief and pastor before the village can consume the delicacy, but now, as the climate warms, the fruit is no longer predictably in season.
Oral traditions and narratives provide insights into climate patterns, natural phenomena, and traditional coping mechanisms. This long-term perspective enhances understanding and response to climate-related crises. Indigenous calendars and seasonal indicators guide agricultural practices and fishing activities based on historical climate observations. In Fiji, mango trees have long served as indispensable seasonal indicators.
As Elaisa Vakaoti of Gau Island, Fiji, explains in her POCCA testimony, when mango trees begin to bloom, it's a sure sign that the rainy season is approaching. Fijian farmers use this natural sign to prepare their fields for planting. This flowering period coincides with the best time for agricultural activities such as sowing and transplanting seedlings, as the soil becomes moist and conducive to growth. “Before we usually know that our trees bear fruits at the right time. It is no longer the case now, especially for mangoes,” Elaisa notes.
Samoan fisherfolk observe local fish migration patterns, breeding seasons, and fish behavior to understand the optimal times to harvest different species to allow for the recovery of fish populations. With fish stocks declining due to rising temperatures and the degradation of marine ecosystems, including coral reefs, it is becoming increasingly important to ensure a sustainable use of ocean resources for current and future generations in Samoa and around the Pacific region.
I‘asina are juvenile goatfish, commonly harvested in Samoa for both sustenance and bait, restricted to designated areas during certain seasons to facilitate spawning. When i‘asina are observed near the shore, a village-wide curfew is imposed. This regulation prevents the use of i‘asina as fishing bait until villagers have achieved a satisfactory and equitably distributed catch. The village chiefs then advise the mayor to recommend multiple sustainable uses for the catch.
The active engagement of all members within the community, especially elders, is critical in crisis management processes. This approach promotes collective responsibility, intergenerational knowledge- sharing, and the prioritisation of Indigenous-led initiatives that actively engage local communities in documenting climate change impacts and implementing adaptation projects. In Samoa, communities facilitate decision-making processes related to land and marine resource management.
Village councils, known as the Fono o Matai, provide a platform for elders and leaders to lead discussions on important matters, including resource allocation, conservation measures, and disaster preparedness. Through community participation, Samoan villages implement traditional practices, such as setting aside tabu (protected) areas where fishing is restricted to allow fish stocks to regenerate. The decision to impose tabu is often reached collectively, taking into account ecological knowledge and the needs of the community.
In Fiji, elders and knowledge holders have a deep understanding of the natural signs and indicators that precede extreme weather events. By observing changes in animal behavior, cloud formations, and ocean currents, they can predict the approach of storms and take early precautions. A species of bird called the manu ni cagi, also known as the ‘bird of the wind’, holds a special place in Fijian storm forecasting.
As these birds are rarely seen in calm weather, observing an abundance of them tends to indicate that a cyclone is looming. Their descent from the usual cloud- level flight pattern confirms the impending weather change. Other Fijian community members have also described a distinct change in the sound of coral reefs before storms. When a large cyclone is approaching, the reef can be heard to ‘roar’ or ‘cry’. Similarly, Fijians have observed changes in ocean currents about a month before cyclones. These shifting currents manifest themselves as waves colliding with barrier reefs, typically accompanied by an increased flow of water. The interaction causes the tide to surge directly onto the beach as a telltale sign of an approaching storm.
In an era of rapidly advancing technologies, the preservation and integration of sacred Indigenous knowledge systems remains essential to the resilience of Pacific Islands. By recognizing the methodologies that have stood the test of time and combining them with Western approaches, we can learn how to address the challenges posed by climate change in remote Pacific regions like Fiji and Samoa, and protect the unique cultural and ecological heritage of these island nations for generations to come. There are several research initiatives, POCCA foremost among them, working to utilize Indigenous knowledge as a foundation upon which to synthesize climate knowledge and maximize community crisis response and management.
Indigenous communities in the Pacific have always been deeply attuned to their local environment, using ancestral savvy to understand tides, coastal erosion, and natural weather indicators. Today, a synergy is emerging in which modern scientific and meteorological techniques enhance and are enhanced by this Indigenous expertise.
Satellite-based remote sensing and tide gauges now provide precise data on sea level changes, allowing communities to better strategize against rising sea levels. Advanced computational climate models, when supplied with Indigenous insights about local weather patterns, produce higher-resolution, region-specific forecasts. These refined predictions pave the way for robust climate adaptation strategies. Moreover, while Indigenous methods use natural markers for weather forecasting, the integration of modern meteorological tools like satellite imagery and atmospheric modelling fortifies these predictions. This convergence of ancient wisdom and modern science is enabling Pacific communities to anticipate and respond effectively to the mounting challenges of climate change.
While the contributions of conventional scientific methods to risk assessment, mitigation, and emergency response in Pacific communities are essential, more is needed to confront the climate crisis. Substantial financial support is critical to implementing and scaling up technological solutions to better prepare Pacific communities for the growing threats of climate change.
Make no mistake: The escalating climate crisis is driven by greenhouse gas emissions. Developed countries bear responsibility for the majority of these emissions, while all Pacific Islands nations combined account for only 0.03 percent. Despite their minimal contribution to the problem, these nations suffer the greatest impacts. Acknowledging the unequal responsibility for and impact of the climate crisis on small islands and developed nations, the international community has agreed to establish the Loss and Damage Fund. This new financial mechanism provides a channel for developed countries to disburse climate reparations to the most afflicted and vulnerable communities.
In December 2023, when world leaders convene at COP28, negotiations on the structure of the Fund’s governance and financing will be paramount. Fiji and Samoa are at the forefront of the fight against climate change, but they should not face this global crisis alone. Global support for the Loss and Damage Fund will be essential to facilitate the partnership between Indigenous and Western solutions on the ground, pioneering culturally considerate ways to empower Pacific communities that bear the brunt of climate change.
